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Author: Addison Heintz

  • Introduction to U.S.─France Relations

    Introduction to U.S.─France Relations

    Introduction

    France is a founding member of NATO, the European Union, and holds permanent membership and veto power on the UN Security Council. France has influence in all three of these organizations, as well as an extensive military, with the world’s third largest nuclear arsenal. It maintains a strong diplomatic presence across the globe and was ranked first in soft power—a country’s ability to persuade others without force or coercion, often through collaboration and the shaping of positive attitudes towards said country—in 2017 and 2019. For these reasons, the United States’ relationship with France is one of the country’s most important diplomatic relationships, as French actions impact American interests.

    Quick Facts

    History of U.S.─France Relations

    France is the United States’ oldest ally. The relationship between the United States and France began during the Revolutionary War, when France allied with the American colonists against Great Britain in 1778 through both a military and economic Treaty of Alliance. This alliance with the United States was essential to the American victory.

    During World War 1, the United States entered the war on the side of the Allies and sent millions of American troops to France to fight on the Western Front, where U.S. troops were essential in turning the tide of the war against Germany. The U.S. and France were also allied in World War 2, and the U.S. was essential in liberating France from German occupation.

    In 1949 France and the United States entered a military alliance once again through the founding of NATO. France supported the United States during the Cold War but had its own interests to look after as well. Due to disagreements over the French nuclear program, France withdrew from NATO’s military command structure in 1966. Prior to the United States joining the Vietnam War in 1964, the U.S. supported French opposition to the Viet Minh through military assistance. When France lost control of Vietnam the United States became the dominant western power in the region, to the dissatisfaction of France.

    The two countries cooperated against Iraq during the Persian Gulf War but France later opposed the Invasion of Iraq in 2003. Relations once again became friendlier in 2007 with the election of Nicolas Sarkozy to the French Presidency. Sarkozy was pro-American, and he returned France to full NATO membership. In the years following, the two countries cooperated in several counter-terrorism operations and were strong allies. 

    The election of President Donald Trump weakened French opinion of the United States. In particular, President Trump’s withdrawal from the Paris Climate Accords (2017) and the Iran Nuclear Deal (2018) were heavily opposed by France. In 2020 the United States established tariffs on French imports over France’s digital services tax, which impacted American tech companies. In 2021 France recalled their ambassador to the United States for the first time ever over the AUKUS crisis. AUKUS is a security pact between the U.S., Australia and the U.K. and France viewed its exclusion as a betrayal. This pact also led to Australia canceling a major, lucrative submarine deal with France without warning. Despite conflicts between the U.S. and France, relations have recently strengthened due to collaboration against Russia after the 2022 invasion of Ukraine.

    Strategic Interests

    • Security: France is an invaluable ally to the United States in global security efforts. It is a principal member of NATO, and took over the presidency of the Council of the European Union in January, 2022. Cooperation with France is necessary to create a unified front against global threats, such as the Russian invasion of Ukraine. France has dedicated $2 billion in financial aid to Ukraine and, through the European Union, has imposed several rounds of sanctions on Russia. The United States relies on French support and action to jointly combat security challenges across the globe.
    • Trade: France is a valuable trading partner for the United States, and in 2019, the two countries traded more than $138 billion in goods and services. France is the United States’ third largest trading partner in Europe, and in 2020 they made up roughly 1.9% of U.S. trade. The main U.S. exports to France include industrial chemicals, aircraft and engines, electronics, scientific and medical instruments and supplies, and broadcasting equipment. The U.S. is the top destination for French investment, and the U.S. is also the largest foreign investor in France. The two nations have a bilateral convention on investment, and create a tax treaty bilaterally to address the issues of double taxation and tax evasion that can often occur through international trade and investment. Trade and investment with France is a major source of job creation in the United States, further emphasizing the importance of the economic relationship.
    • Counter-Terrorism: France is one of the central allies in the United States’ ‘War on Terror.’ It runs several counter-terrorism initiatives, and provides aid for U.S. operations across the globe.
      • West Africa: This is one of the principal regions where France has been involved in combating terrorism. Operation Serval is a military operation in Mali that began in 2013 which aimed to stop Islamic militants’ push from northern Mali into the country’s center, and towards the capital. The operation received financial and military support from the United States and was a relative success, as it pushed the militants back, but left the country unstable. Mali has undergone two coup d’états since, one in 2020 and one in 2021. To this day, France maintains a smaller presence in the country fighting militants and receives support from the United States.

    This is just one example of counter-terrorism cooperation between the two nations. France has also allied with the United States in other operations, such as through membership in the Combined Task Force 150 which aims to fight maritime terrorism and criminal activity in the Arabian Gulf. 

    Right-Wing Nationalism: The right-wing nationalist movement has gained popularity across Europe in recent years, and Marine Le Pen, the leader of the French National Rally party is a prime example of this ideology. Despite losing the 2022 French presidential election to Emmanuel Macron, the far-right performed historically well, gaining more than 40% of the vote. Marine Le Pen represents a growing trend of extreme nationalism in France, and has publicly spoken out against the EU and NATO. She believes that French laws should take precedence over laws of international organizations, denounces U.S. influence in France, and is viewed to be sympathetic to Russia. Losing French support in areas such as NATO would be a critical blow to the United States and its allies.

  • Failures and Successes of the EU

    Failures and Successes of the EU

    Introduction

    The European Union (EU) is a political and economic union founded in the aftermath of World War II. The mass violence of the war left many Europeans feeling unsure of the future of the continent. With calls for cooperation increasing, new organizations sprung up across Europe in an effort to foster trust between nations and prevent war from breaking out again. These organizations formed the basis of what eventually became known as the EU in 1993. The union’s principal goals are the promotion of peace, freedom, security and justice for its citizens, as well as greater economic stability and growth within its market.

    The EU is divided into four main institutions: the European Commission, the European Parliament, the Council of the European Union and the European Council. The European Commission is the executive body of the EU—they propose new laws and ensure these laws are properly implemented if they are approved. The Council of the European Union and the European Parliament discuss, and adopt or reject, new laws. The key difference between the two organizations is that the European Parliament represents citizens of the EU, and is made up of democratically elected representatives, while the Council of the European Union represents the governments of EU members, and is made up of national ministers appointed by their country. The European Council is made up of political leaders of EU member countries and is responsible for defining the goals and overall priorities of the EU.

    The EU, as of 2022, has twenty-seven member countries. Several other countries are part of trade deals or other alliances with the EU and several other countries are considered candidates for membership.

    History of the EU

    • 1951: West Germany, France, Italy, Luxembourg, Belgium and the Netherlands form the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). This organization requires all member countries to place their coal and steel industries under a single management, easing distrust after WWII.
    • 1957: The Treaties of Rome are signed by the same six members of the ECSC, creating the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom).
    • 1958: The European Parliament is created to facilitate discussion between the three European communities.
    • 1960: The European Free Trade Association (EFTA) is created to encourage and facilitate trade between European countries not in the EEC.
    • 1965: The Merger Treaty is signed, merging the executives of the three major European communities into a single administration called “The European Communities”.
    • 1992-1993: The Maastricht Treaty is signed in 1992, officially creating the European Union when it came into effect in 1993. This treaty established a common currency — the Euro — and introduced the concept of European citizenship. The EU’s single market also launched in 1993.
    • 2007: The Treaty of Lisbon is signed, giving greater power to the European Parliament. They now elect the head of the EU’s Commission and are responsible for establishing the EU’s budget.
    • 2016: The UK votes to leave the EU and they officially leave the alliance in 2020.

    Successes

    1. Post-WWII: After WWII, Europe was fractured. Western European countries sought to establish and strengthen relationships with each other. The EU, in its earliest forms, accomplished its difficult goal of reconciliation and unity between member nations through various trade deals and intergovernmental organizations. To this day, no two EU member nations have ever been engaged in an armed conflict against one another.
    2. Economic Cooperation: The EU is the world’s largest single market. The vast majority of trade barriers between EU member states have been removed, allowing for the free movement of goods, services, capital and people across the organization’s borders. This allows for greater economic competition and promotes economic growth. However, it can be challenging to balance competing economic interests among member states, especially when it comes to monetary policy. Disputes occur when some nations are experiencing inflation and others are experiencing sluggish economic growth, which traditionally require different monetary responses.
    3. Unified European Identity: The EU not only creates a forum discussion, it unifies the continent politically and economically. All citizens of member nations of the EU are considered EU citizens, uniting people from across the continent under a set of rights, which guarantee them equal treatment no matter which EU state they are in. EU citizens’ rights are guaranteed in their Charter of Fundamental Rights and include a wide range of privacy, employment, consumer and human rights, as well as the right to vote in European Parliament elections.
    4. Activism: The EU has taken a staunch stance against injustice and inequality, both within their borders and beyond. The EU provides aid for millions across the globe, and collectively, the union and its member countries are the largest donor of humanitarian aid in the world. The EU has several programs providing food, shelter, water, healthcare and other forms of stability for more than eighty countries. The EU won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2012.

    Failures

    1. Democratic Legitimacy: While EU citizens vote in EU Parliament elections, most EU representatives are not democratically elected. In addition, voter turnout for EU Parliament elections has been decreasing since the Parliament was created and in 2019, only 50.66% of eligible EU voters participated. Many still believe that it fails to represent the average EU citizen and that it is not being held accountable for its decisions.
    2. Yugoslav Wars: With the collapse of Yugoslavia in the early 1990s, the EU was faced with its first major crisis since the end of the Cold War. The early peace negotiations organized by the EU were mismanaged and unorganized, and the EU failed to end the fighting or find a solution to the conflict. This was largely due to continual disagreement among member states, which also led to delays in military and humanitarian aid. The lack of a unified policy ultimately exacerbated the wars, leading to longer conflict, a larger death toll, and greater economic and material damages.
    3. Right-wing Nationalism: In recent years right-wing parties have gained influence across Europe. A central focus of many of these parties is the maintenance of their state identity and interests, or nationalism. International organizations, like the EU, often do not align with countries’ national interests. Euroscepticism, or political opposition to the EU, has increased in recent years in countries such as France, Poland and Hungary. Nationalism was also a central reason for the United Kingdom’s decision to leave the EU. These sentiments threaten the credibility and stability of the union, and by failing to address them, the EU, and its place in Europe is weakened.
    4. Covid-19: The health policy of the EU in response to the global Covid-19 pandemic was somewhat successful in its economic response, but largely a failure in terms of healthcare — specifically their vaccine rollout. Vaccine distribution across the EU was slow and poorly coordinated. This led to an increased death toll and greater economic loss.

    The EU and the United States

    The European Union and the United States have a close relationship defined by peace and cooperation. Relations between the two are further strengthened by the existence of NATO, which includes many of the same members of the EU, and the United States. The U.S. and the EU are the largest economic and military powers in the world, dominating trade and leading many global diplomatic and political discussions. What the EU does therefore greatly impacts the United States—and vice versa. In order to facilitate this relationship, members of the EU Parliament and the U.S. House of Representatives meet biannually to discuss a wide range of topics from foreign affairs to cyber security. This is known as the Transatlantic Legislators Dialogue, and it allows both delegations to establish a united statement and policy on certain issues.

    The Future of the EU

    As the Ukraine War continues, the EU enters a new challenge. The war has become something for the EU to rally against, and has patched up some of the divides created by growing Euroscepticism across the continent. However, the EU’s response has still been lacking. Because all EU decisions must be agreed upon by all members, and some nations—notably Hungary—remain staunchly against stricter sanctions for Russia, the EU’s overall economic response has been weak.

    Beyond the war in Ukraine, the EU will have to face many additional challenges in the coming years. With threats to leave by member nations like Hungary, the EU may see more countries depart like the UK. The EU will also be tasked with addressing issues of immigration, inflation, climate change and healthcare. The EU’s response to these concerns as well as the Ukraine War will define their future status.

  • Failures and Successes of NATO

    Failures and Successes of NATO

    Introduction

    NATO, or the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, is a military and political alliance founded in 1949 and dedicated to ensuring the security and freedom of its members. As the Cold War took shape and the Soviet Union threatened European governments, the founding countries of NATO determined that a transatlantic alliance was necessary to both deter Soviet aggression and promote political integration rather than militarism. In the decades since, NATO has grown in structure and members into the organization it is today. The primary political council of NATO is the North Atlantic Council (NAC), and it is chaired by NATO’s Secretary General. Each member has a seat on this council and all decisions are made by consensus, so that any decision made by NATO reflects the will of all members. If a decision reached under the NAC or a political subcommittee has military implications, the Military Committee is responsible for giving expert advice to the NAC and for organizing and carrying out NATO’s military operations. 

    The United States is the largest financial contributor to NATO and a key member of the alliance. The alliance promotes democratic ideas and peaceful conflict resolution around the world. Countries looking to join must have a functioning democratic government and a commitment to peacefully resolve conflict. With a large network of members and resources, NATO aims to hold its members to a standard of democracy and intervenes to defuse conflicts before they happen. However, there is continuous debate over how to handle NATO member states experiencing democratic backsliding. In addition, conflict is deterred by the collective defense aspect of NATO, where an attack on one member is an attack on all members. Despite its shortcomings and the challenges it faces, it is often considered to be one of the most successful international alliances in history.

    There are currently thirty members of NATO and several countries are aspiring to join. Other countries are engaged in working partnerships with the alliance, while not being members.

    Source: Statista

    A Brief History

    • 1949: As communism spread across Europe, and the Soviet’s influence increased, the United States’ desire for a security treaty with Western Europe outside of the UN’s Security Council (where the USSR held veto power) led to the creation of NATO.
    • 1955: In response to West Germany joining NATO, the Soviet Union and seven other Eastern European countries formed the Warsaw Pact.
    • 1991: The Soviet Union collapsed, leading to the dissolution of the Warsaw Pact. The North Atlantic Cooperation Council was created as a platform for cooperation between old Warsaw Pact members and NATO.
    • 1995: NATO became involved in its first ever crisis response operation, leading the Implementation Force, a peace enforcement force during the Bosnian War.
    • 2001: 9/11 resulted in NATO invoking Article 5 of the Washington Treaty for the first, and only, time. Article 5 states that “an attack against one… shall be considered an attack against them all.” NATO launched several counter-terrorism initiatives and deployed military forces to Afghanistan.
    • 2003: NATO takes control of the International Security Force (ISAF) in Afghanistan, a UN-mandated security force responsible for ensuring the Afghan government’s authority.
    • 2014: NATO suspends most relations with Russia over their illegal annexation of Crimea.

    Successes

    1. The Cold War: During the Cold War, NATO’s efforts were centered around three goals: controlling the Soviet Union, dissuading militant nationalism and communism across Europe, and establishing greater European political unity. The alliance played a major role in maintaining the tense peace of the Cold War and ensuring the war remained ‘cold’. With the end of the war, NATO worked to further maintain peace. They established the North Atlantic Cooperation Council and, in 1997, NATO encouraged bilateral discussion between the United States and Russia through the Founding Act.
    2. Modern Day Protection: Today, NATO continues to provide a level of protection for its members. Since its founding, a NATO member has only been attacked and evoked Article 5 once (the United States after 9/11). Member countries are afforded collective security, just as NATO originally sought to do. Additionally, NATO has created a global network of more than 40 countries and other partners around the globe—ranging from the African Union to the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE). This network provides NATO support in its crisis management operations, ranging from aid operations such as its delivery of relief supplies after the 2005 Kashmir Earthquake to counter-terrorism operations in the Mediterranean and the coast of Somalia.
    3. The Ukraine War: NATO has publicly denounced the Russian invasion of Ukraine and NATO member countries and allies have provided substantial aid to Ukraine. The United States has contributed roughly $54 billion to Ukraine. Other countries have provided humanitarian aid and support for the more than 5 million refugees of the war. The Ukraine war has reaffirmed the importance of NATO, and even spurred Finland and Sweden to increase their efforts to join the alliance. These countries’ membership would strengthen the alliance militarily through increased air and submarine capabilities, allowing for NATO to further dissuade Russian aggression.

    Failures

    1. Funding Issues: In 2006, NATO Defense Ministers agreed to a commitment that 2% of their countries’ GDP would be allocated towards defense spending. However, the majority of NATO members do not meet this goal. Currently, the United States accounts for over two-thirds of the alliance’s defense spending.
    2. Afghanistan: After 9/11, NATO was a considerable presence in Afghanistan, and their forces were crucial in their support of the Afghan government. When President Donald Trump signed an agreement with the Taliban in 2020, both NATO and American troops were withdrawn from Afghanistan. What followed was an immediate fall in the Afghan government at the hands of the Taliban. Despite the two decades NATO spent in Afghanistan, no long term solution was reached, and without their presence, the nation’s former government could not survive.
    3. Right-Wing Nationalism: With the spread of right-wing nationalism across Europe, discontent with international institutions like NATO and the EU grows. If right-wing nationalist movements continue to increase in popularity across Europe, there could be increased calls for countries to leave institutions like NATO. The challenge NATO faces now is how to combat and address their criticism, and how to unify a divided Europe.
    4. Russian Aggression: Despite supposed verbal promises to Russia that it would not expand to the east, NATO has admitted several former Warsaw Pact members since the fall of the Soviet Union. Now, with NATO members bordering Russia and the promise of further expansion, Russia feels increasingly threatened. The possibility of Ukraine joining NATO has been cited as a significant reason for Vladmir Putin’s invasion of the country.

    The Future of NATO

    As the war in Ukraine continues, NATO is more relevant now than it has been in decades. NATO plays a role in distributing military and humanitarian aid to Ukraine, and the alliance will be influential in the outcome of the war. NATO serves as a means of collective defense and security against Russia and the increasing threat to international order that they represent. With debates over how NATO can best assist Ukraine, and how to best avoid conflicts such as this in the future, NATO will have to revisit its current deterrence strategy in the upcoming years. Also at play is the growing role of China on the world stage. NATO must consider that the world does not revolve solely around the Euro-Atlantic region, and address questions about its role outside this region and across the globe. NATO continues to be essential towards not only the security of its members including the United States, but to the world.

  • Addison Heintz, Mount Holyoke College

    Addison Heintz, Mount Holyoke College

    Addison Heintz is a sophomore at Mount Holyoke College, majoring in History and International Relations, with a minor in French. Addison’s focus is on international institutions and political history, and involves analyzing the current international system in comparison to previous historical systems, both national and international. After receiving her bachelors, she plans to pursue a master’s degree in international development and a Juris Doctor degree. She one day hopes to work in diplomacy or as a human rights lawyer. At college, she works for Mount Holyoke’s Speaking, Arguing and Writing (SAW) center as a student mentor. She recently received the Foster Prize for outstanding work by a first-year student in French at Mount Holyoke for her literary analysis papers and French presidential election reports. In her free time, she runs for the Mount Holyoke Track and Field team, plays guitar, spends time with her friends and works on writing her first book.

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