Category: Europe

Introduction

France is a founding member of NATO, the European Union, and holds permanent membership and veto power on the UN Security Council. France has influence in all three of these organizations, as well as an extensive military, with the world’s third largest nuclear arsenal. It maintains a strong diplomatic presence across the globe and was ranked first in soft power—a country’s ability to persuade others without force or coercion, often through collaboration and the shaping of positive attitudes towards said country—in 2017 and 2019. For these reasons, the United States’ relationship with France is one of the country’s most important diplomatic relationships, as French actions impact American interests.

Quick Facts

• Population: 68.3 million
• Capital: Paris
• Official Language: French 
• System of Governance: Semi-Presidential Republic
• President: Emmanuel Macron
• Prime Minister: Elisabeth Borne
• GDP: 2.937 trillion (2021)
• Currency: Euro

History of U.S.─France Relations

France is the United States’ oldest ally. The relationship between the United States and France began during the Revolutionary War, when France allied with the American colonists against Great Britain in 1778 through both a military and economic Treaty of Alliance. This alliance with the United States was essential to the American victory.

During World War 1, the United States entered the war on the side of the Allies and sent millions of American troops to France to fight on the Western Front, where U.S. troops were essential in turning the tide of the war against Germany. The U.S. and France were also allied in World War 2, and the U.S. was essential in liberating France from German occupation.

In 1949 France and the United States entered a military alliance once again through the founding of NATO. France supported the United States during the Cold War but had its own interests to look after as well. Due to disagreements over the French nuclear program, France withdrew from NATO’s military command structure in 1966. Prior to the United States joining the Vietnam War in 1964, the U.S. supported French opposition to the Viet Minh through military assistance. When France lost control of Vietnam the United States became the dominant western power in the region, to the dissatisfaction of France.

The two countries cooperated against Iraq during the Persian Gulf War but France later opposed the Invasion of Iraq in 2003. Relations once again became friendlier in 2007 with the election of Nicolas Sarkozy to the French Presidency. Sarkozy was pro-American, and he returned France to full NATO membership. In the years following, the two countries cooperated in several counter-terrorism operations and were strong allies. 

The election of President Donald Trump weakened French opinion of the United States. In particular, President Trump’s withdrawal from the Paris Climate Accords (2017) and the Iran Nuclear Deal (2018) were heavily opposed by France. In 2020 the United States established tariffs on French imports over France’s digital services tax, which impacted American tech companies. In 2021 France recalled their ambassador to the United States for the first time ever over the AUKUS crisis. AUKUS is a security pact between the U.S., Australia and the U.K. and France viewed its exclusion as a betrayal. This pact also led to Australia canceling a major, lucrative submarine deal with France without warning. Despite conflicts between the U.S. and France, relations have recently strengthened due to collaboration against Russia after the 2022 invasion of Ukraine.

Strategic Interests

• Security: France is an invaluable ally to the United States in global security efforts. It is a principal member of NATO, and took over the presidency of the Council of the European Union in January, 2022. Cooperation with France is necessary to create a unified front against global threats, such as the Russian invasion of Ukraine. France has dedicated $2 billion in financial aid to Ukraine and, through the European Union, has imposed several rounds of sanctions on Russia. The United States relies on French support and action to jointly combat security challenges across the globe.
• Trade: France is a valuable trading partner for the United States, and in 2019, the two countries traded more than $138 billion in goods and services. France is the United States’ third largest trading partner in Europe, and in 2020 they made up roughly 1.9% of U.S. trade. The main U.S. exports to France include industrial chemicals, aircraft and engines, electronics, scientific and medical instruments and supplies, and broadcasting equipment. The U.S. is the top destination for French investment, and the U.S. is also the largest foreign investor in France. The two nations have a bilateral convention on investment, and create a tax treaty bilaterally to address the issues of double taxation and tax evasion that can often occur through international trade and investment. Trade and investment with France is a major source of job creation in the United States, further emphasizing the importance of the economic relationship.
• Counter-Terrorism: France is one of the central allies in the United States’ ‘War on Terror.’ It runs several counter-terrorism initiatives, and provides aid for U.S. operations across the globe.
  • West Africa: This is one of the principal regions where France has been involved in combating terrorism. Operation Serval is a military operation in Mali that began in 2013 which aimed to stop Islamic militants’ push from northern Mali into the country’s center, and towards the capital. The operation received financial and military support from the United States and was a relative success, as it pushed the militants back, but left the country unstable. Mali has undergone two coup d’états since, one in 2020 and one in 2021. To this day, France maintains a smaller presence in the country fighting militants and receives support from the United States.

This is just one example of counter-terrorism cooperation between the two nations. France has also allied with the United States in other operations, such as through membership in the Combined Task Force 150 which aims to fight maritime terrorism and criminal activity in the Arabian Gulf. 

Right-Wing Nationalism: The right-wing nationalist movement has gained popularity across Europe in recent years, and Marine Le Pen, the leader of the French National Rally party is a prime example of this ideology. Despite losing the 2022 French presidential election to Emmanuel Macron, the far-right performed historically well, gaining more than 40% of the vote. Marine Le Pen represents a growing trend of extreme nationalism in France, and has publicly spoken out against the EU and NATO. She believes that French laws should take precedence over laws of international organizations, denounces U.S. influence in France, and is viewed to be sympathetic to Russia. Losing French support in areas such as NATO would be a critical blow to the United States and its allies.

Overview of UK–European Union Relations

The United Kingdom (UK) and the European Union (EU) have a long and turbulent history of engagement. The origins of the EU date back to 1945 as a means to bring European nations together to avoid the destruction of World War II from happening again. UK Prime Minister (PM) Winston Churchill endorsed this ideal, calling it “a kind of United States of Europe”. However, the UK declined the invitation to join the European Economic Community (EEC; former name for the EU) in 1957. In 1961, the UK applied to join, and was vetoed twice by French President Charles de Gaulle, who felt the UK was a selfish actor who had prioritized relations with the U.S. over supporting the new union with European relations. In 1973, under PM Edward Heath, the UK successfully entered into the EEC, supported by a 1975 EEC Membership referendum vote with 67% in favor. 

A major point of contention between the UK and the EU during its membership was a perceived infringement on UK sovereignty. In the 1980s, the EU was moving towards a more “federal” Europe, with a single currency (the Euro) and universal social policies. This was rejected by PM Margaret Thatcher, who saw these actions as “a European super-state exercising a new dominance”. PM John Major, Thatcher’s successor, opted into the Maastricht Treaty in 1992, which gave increased power to the EU. However, he opted out of both the single currency and many social policies. Under PM Tony Blair, the UK sought to repair some of the strained UK-EU relations by signing the Social Chapter in 1997, which involved progressive social changes long supported by the Labor Party he led. This aligned the UK with EU social policies of the time which prioritized improving equal opportunity in the workplace, social security, workers rights, and improving working conditions by revolutionizing health and safety standards. 

Following the 2008 financial crisis 2008 and 2011 Euro crisis, the EU sought to create new budgetary policies through treaties. The crisis of the Euro, also known as the European Debt Crisis, began in 2009 when EU member Greece was grappling with high debt levels and a struggling economy, and other EU members provided loans as a bailout. The Greek economy continued to struggle, and the stability of European financial institutions was threatened. PM David Cameron vetoed UK involvement in the pact that sought to address the financial issues, which deviated the UK from EU policies and emboldened euro-skeptics in the UK. Growing discontent in the UK and an uncompromising EU catalyzed the 2016 UK Referendum on EU membership. With a 51.9% majority, the UK voted to leave the EU, beginning what is known as “Brexit.” This vote was divisive, with England and Wales voting to “Leave”, and Scotland and Northern Ireland voting to “Remain”. The UK decision to leave the EU, officially completed in January 2020, put immense strain on UK–EU relations, and UK relations with other allies. 

Ramifications of Brexit

1. Trade: the UK no longer has barrier-free access to the EU’s single-market, and the two parties are negotiating a trade agreement. The UK had a vision of a more “Global Britain” free from the constraints of EU membership. However, few trade deals have been signed by a post-Brexit UK. The U.S. is hesitant to engage in trade talks until the final terms of UK–EU relations have been determined, and requires that peace will be maintained between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland before an agreement is finalized. 
2. Relations between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland: Brexit strained the long standing peace on the isle of Ireland, established by the Good Friday Agreement. The Good Friday Agreement ended decades of conflict over governance in Northern Ireland, between two populations making up Northern Ireland, ‘Unionists’ (also known as Loyalists, predominantly Protestants, who were in favor of Northern Ireland being part of the UK) and ‘Nationalists’ (also known as Republicans, predominantly Catholic, who wanted Northern Ireland to be independent from the UK instead joining the Republic of Ireland). The U.S. played a large role in brokering the agreement, which established shared governance between parties in Northern Ireland and recognition of its status as part of the UK. 

As a result of Brexit, tensions over trade across the land border between the Republic of Ireland (an EU member) and Northern Ireland (no longer an EU member) has sparked uncertainty in particular with Unionists, who feared it could cause separation between Northern Ireland and the UK. The 2021 Northern Ireland Protocol mitigated some tensions, but the UK intends to eventually adjust the protocol to facilitate trade. This resurgence of this issue is causing tension in the U.S.-UK relationship.

Brexit and U.S.–UK Relations

President Obama stated the UK would be at the “back of the queue” when it comes to trade should they opt to leave the EU, and he was in favor of the UK maintaining its EU membership. President Trump was in favor of Brexit, and advocated for a tougher stance on the UK’s exit agreement—known as “Hard-Brexit”—which PM Theresa May wanted to avoid. The Biden Administration is navigating a post-Brexit Britain, and he has stressed that relations between the U.S. and the UK are contingent on maintaining peace in Ireland. When the UK announced its intention to change the Northern Ireland Protocol, Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi stated that Congress “cannot and will not support a bilateral free trade agreement” should the UK violate the agreement.

The Brookings Institute found U.S. bilateral relations with European partners are highest with the UK, awarding a score of 6.5/10, in contrast with a 5.7 for U.S.-EU relations. In the absence of EU membership, the UK has reoriented its foreign policy to align closer with the U.S. This can be seen through the 2021 Australia-United Kingdom-United States (AUKUS) Partnership, the New Atlantic Charter, and the UK’s support for Ukraine following Russia’s invasion. 

However, the instability of Brexit has reduced the UK’s appeal as a competitive global partner for the U.S., and forced the U.S. to walk the line between supporting a longstanding ally and maintaining relations with a powerful bloc of countries. The UK has more autonomy when making international agreements, in comparison to the EU, but it wields less diplomatic and economic influence. EU agreements require all member states to sign off, but represent a significant, united diplomatic and economic force.

History

The first Atlantic Charter between the United States and the United Kingdom was signed August 14, 1941 by then-President Franklin D. Roosevelt and Prime Minister Winston Churchill. The Charter marked one of the founding agreements of what was to become the United Nations, and connected two countries around shared principles and policies. Since the conclusion of World War II, the U.S. and the UK have maintained strong diplomatic relations—often referred to as the “Special Relationship”. This Special Relationship commenced in 1946 giving rise to one of the most significant international partnerships of the modern day. 

The U.S. and the UK’s military and security relations have strengthened through cooperation in conflicts such as the Korean War, the Persian Gulf War, the Iraq War, and military operations in Afghanistan, alongside founding the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). The U.S. and the UK have often supported similar economic policies, including the shift towards privatization and promotion of capitalism during the Reagan Administration and a UK government led by PM Margaret Thatcher. Ultimately, the two countries remain committed to the protection of democratic values and cooperation against adversaries who fail to recognize or adhere to alliances or institutions. Thus, on June 10, 2021, President Biden and Prime Minister Johnson signed The New Atlantic Charter, reaffirming the historic alliance. 

Outline of The New Atlantic Charter

The New Atlantic Charter has eight sections:

1. Defending democracy be it democratic values, ideals, and institutions that contribute and protect to this form of governance. This paragraph also expands into supporting transparency, the protection of civil society and human rights, and the commitment to protecting an independent media. 
2. Sustaining international co-operation through developing laws, norms, and strengthening existing institutions to face the challenges of today. This component advocates for a “rules-based” approach to facing the good and bad impacts of emerging technologies, economic development while protecting the workers that enable it, and supporting free trade between countries.
3. Sovereignty, territorial integrity, and peaceful resolution to disputes, with both the U.S. and UK uniting and standing against interference with these principles. Much of this alludes to opposing the growing issue of disinformation, election interference, and reaffirming the need for debt transparency and debt relief. Moreover, this paragraph concludes with the commitment to defend lawful international “freedom of navigation” be it by air or seas.
4. Innovation in Science and Technology, seeking to continue to promote development of these areas to support shared security, create employment domestically, foster global development, and create technologies to be deployed for the support of democratic values. 
5. Collective security and international stability through reaffirming the shared responsibility to protect these principles in the modern world. This component re-emphasizes both the U.S. and the UK commitment to NATO and its allies, particularly with modern day security threats, be it cyberspace, arms control, and the disarmament or proliferation of nuclear weapons. The notable tone of this paragraph is that these threats are a collective issue for both countries and therefore should be tackled through international cooperation.
6. Building a sustainable global economy that is free, fair, sustainable, climate-friendly and rules-based. Both countries are committed to fighting corruption, encouraging financial stability and transparency, while working towards fair and environmentally mindful global innovation and competition.
7. Tackling the climate crisis by recognizing the immediate threat this poses and as such, both the U.S. and the UK seek to prioritize this issue in all their respective international actions.
8. Addressing health crises through collaboration to advance health systems and protections, to strengthen collective defenses against health threats and assist in others striving to do the same.

One of the overarching takeaways from the signing of The New Atlantic Charter is the return of diplomacy as the key American tool in international relations, a mechanism long used and endorsed in UK foreign policy actions. Much of the agreement reaffirms prior understandings, but it also attempts to reference the challenges of the twenty-first century, some of which are cited throughout the document.

The Future

The New Atlantic Charter signals a new dawn of the U.S.–UK relations at a time when many feel the rules-based world order is at its most vulnerable since World War II. While the charter steers away from naming specific adversaries, each component alludes to the perceived threat China and Russia, and a world that has been permanently changed by COVID-19. Over the past few years, the U.S. and the UK have embodied that vision by expanding their collective presence in the Indo-Pacific Region with the introduction of the Australia-United Kingdom-United States (AUKUS) Partnership to counterbalance China, and supporting Ukraine’s sovereignty following Russia’s invasion.

However, recent data indicates many Americans are concerned about how much focus the U.S. places on global affairs, potentially to the detriment of domestic issues. This suggests a growing U.S. skepticism towards the importance or necessity of agreements with international allies, with a majority favoring a focus towards domestic policy rather than global affairs. At the same time, the UK’s influence on the global stage has been declining since the start of the “Special Relationship”. Many who support an outward-facing U.S. presence feel the U.S. needs to expand relations with other countries who can bring more to the table.

Introduction

The European Union (EU) is a political and economic union founded in the aftermath of World War II. The mass violence of the war left many Europeans feeling unsure of the future of the continent. With calls for cooperation increasing, new organizations sprung up across Europe in an effort to foster trust between nations and prevent war from breaking out again. These organizations formed the basis of what eventually became known as the EU in 1993. The union’s principal goals are the promotion of peace, freedom, security and justice for its citizens, as well as greater economic stability and growth within its market.

The EU is divided into four main institutions: the European Commission, the European Parliament, the Council of the European Union and the European Council. The European Commission is the executive body of the EU—they propose new laws and ensure these laws are properly implemented if they are approved. The Council of the European Union and the European Parliament discuss, and adopt or reject, new laws. The key difference between the two organizations is that the European Parliament represents citizens of the EU, and is made up of democratically elected representatives, while the Council of the European Union represents the governments of EU members, and is made up of national ministers appointed by their country. The European Council is made up of political leaders of EU member countries and is responsible for defining the goals and overall priorities of the EU.

The EU, as of 2022, has twenty-seven member countries. Several other countries are part of trade deals or other alliances with the EU and several other countries are considered candidates for membership.

History of the EU

• 1951: West Germany, France, Italy, Luxembourg, Belgium and the Netherlands form the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). This organization requires all member countries to place their coal and steel industries under a single management, easing distrust after WWII.
• 1957: The Treaties of Rome are signed by the same six members of the ECSC, creating the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom).
• 1958: The European Parliament is created to facilitate discussion between the three European communities.
• 1960: The European Free Trade Association (EFTA) is created to encourage and facilitate trade between European countries not in the EEC.
• 1965: The Merger Treaty is signed, merging the executives of the three major European communities into a single administration called “The European Communities”.
• 1992-1993: The Maastricht Treaty is signed in 1992, officially creating the European Union when it came into effect in 1993. This treaty established a common currency — the Euro — and introduced the concept of European citizenship. The EU’s single market also launched in 1993.
• 2007: The Treaty of Lisbon is signed, giving greater power to the European Parliament. They now elect the head of the EU’s Commission and are responsible for establishing the EU’s budget.
• 2016: The UK votes to leave the EU and they officially leave the alliance in 2020.

Successes

1. Post-WWII: After WWII, Europe was fractured. Western European countries sought to establish and strengthen relationships with each other. The EU, in its earliest forms, accomplished its difficult goal of reconciliation and unity between member nations through various trade deals and intergovernmental organizations. To this day, no two EU member nations have ever been engaged in an armed conflict against one another.
2. Economic Cooperation: The EU is the world’s largest single market. The vast majority of trade barriers between EU member states have been removed, allowing for the free movement of goods, services, capital and people across the organization’s borders. This allows for greater economic competition and promotes economic growth. However, it can be challenging to balance competing economic interests among member states, especially when it comes to monetary policy. Disputes occur when some nations are experiencing inflation and others are experiencing sluggish economic growth, which traditionally require different monetary responses.
3. Unified European Identity: The EU not only creates a forum discussion, it unifies the continent politically and economically. All citizens of member nations of the EU are considered EU citizens, uniting people from across the continent under a set of rights, which guarantee them equal treatment no matter which EU state they are in. EU citizens’ rights are guaranteed in their Charter of Fundamental Rights and include a wide range of privacy, employment, consumer and human rights, as well as the right to vote in European Parliament elections.
4. Activism: The EU has taken a staunch stance against injustice and inequality, both within their borders and beyond. The EU provides aid for millions across the globe, and collectively, the union and its member countries are the largest donor of humanitarian aid in the world. The EU has several programs providing food, shelter, water, healthcare and other forms of stability for more than eighty countries. The EU won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2012.

Failures

1. Democratic Legitimacy: While EU citizens vote in EU Parliament elections, most EU representatives are not democratically elected. In addition, voter turnout for EU Parliament elections has been decreasing since the Parliament was created and in 2019, only 50.66% of eligible EU voters participated. Many still believe that it fails to represent the average EU citizen and that it is not being held accountable for its decisions.
2. Yugoslav Wars: With the collapse of Yugoslavia in the early 1990s, the EU was faced with its first major crisis since the end of the Cold War. The early peace negotiations organized by the EU were mismanaged and unorganized, and the EU failed to end the fighting or find a solution to the conflict. This was largely due to continual disagreement among member states, which also led to delays in military and humanitarian aid. The lack of a unified policy ultimately exacerbated the wars, leading to longer conflict, a larger death toll, and greater economic and material damages.
3. Right-wing Nationalism: In recent years right-wing parties have gained influence across Europe. A central focus of many of these parties is the maintenance of their state identity and interests, or nationalism. International organizations, like the EU, often do not align with countries’ national interests. Euroscepticism, or political opposition to the EU, has increased in recent years in countries such as France, Poland and Hungary. Nationalism was also a central reason for the United Kingdom’s decision to leave the EU. These sentiments threaten the credibility and stability of the union, and by failing to address them, the EU, and its place in Europe is weakened.
4. Covid-19: The health policy of the EU in response to the global Covid-19 pandemic was somewhat successful in its economic response, but largely a failure in terms of healthcare — specifically their vaccine rollout. Vaccine distribution across the EU was slow and poorly coordinated. This led to an increased death toll and greater economic loss.

The EU and the United States

The European Union and the United States have a close relationship defined by peace and cooperation. Relations between the two are further strengthened by the existence of NATO, which includes many of the same members of the EU, and the United States. The U.S. and the EU are the largest economic and military powers in the world, dominating trade and leading many global diplomatic and political discussions. What the EU does therefore greatly impacts the United States—and vice versa. In order to facilitate this relationship, members of the EU Parliament and the U.S. House of Representatives meet biannually to discuss a wide range of topics from foreign affairs to cyber security. This is known as the Transatlantic Legislators Dialogue, and it allows both delegations to establish a united statement and policy on certain issues.

The Future of the EU

As the Ukraine War continues, the EU enters a new challenge. The war has become something for the EU to rally against, and has patched up some of the divides created by growing Euroscepticism across the continent. However, the EU’s response has still been lacking. Because all EU decisions must be agreed upon by all members, and some nations—notably Hungary—remain staunchly against stricter sanctions for Russia, the EU’s overall economic response has been weak.

Beyond the war in Ukraine, the EU will have to face many additional challenges in the coming years. With threats to leave by member nations like Hungary, the EU may see more countries depart like the UK. The EU will also be tasked with addressing issues of immigration, inflation, climate change and healthcare. The EU’s response to these concerns as well as the Ukraine War will define their future status.