Introduction
On October 11, 2001, President George W. Bush announced the beginning of the Global War on Terror. New US policies were implemented domestically and internationally to combat the threat of terrorism. Both military operations and civilian aid programs have been used for this purpose, and Kenya and Somalia have experienced a combination of both policy types. Both countries have been of interest to US security efforts for the past three decades, with US military operations in Somalia predating the war on terror, and diplomatic relationships with both established shortly after their respective indepences.
Diplomatic Overview
The US established diplomatic relations with Somalia shortly after its independence from Great Britain and Italy in 1960. Since independence, the country has experienced coups and civil wars which made consistent diplomatic relations difficult. For example the US embassy in Mogadishu was closed from 1991 to 2018. During this period, the US undertook military operations in 1992-1994 and 2002, at the beginning of Operation Enduring Freedom – Horn of Africa. At the same time, the Somalian government received $3 billion in humanitarian, governance and security aid since 2006. Additionally, the United States works with local and global organizations to create and support effective systems to locally address humanitarian issues.
US relations with Kenya are stronger than those with Somalia. Relations were established in 1964, and the scope of bilateral engagement between the two countries began to expand in 1992 when Kenya became a multiparty democracy. The relationship was elevated to a strategic partnership in 2018, and the first Bilateral Strategic Dialogue with Kenyan representatives took place in 2019. This dialogue affirmed US commitment to work with Kenya on addressing a variety of issues, including defense and civilian security in both the country and region. Kenya receives a large amount of aid from the United States, which totalled $560 million for fiscal year 2020. The United States and Kenya cooperate closely on security programs, with US agencies including the State Department and Department of Defense contributing millions to improving both civilian law enforcement and defense institutions. Programs focus on different approaches to security, including counterterrorism and countering violent extremism, as well as bolstering criminal investigation capacity, border security, and crisis response.
Historic and Present Threats
US embassies in Nairobi, Kenya, and Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, were bombed in 1998 by Al-Qaeda, killing a total of 224 people and injuring over 4,500. During the War on Terror, Kenya and Somalia were one region of concern due to Al-Qaeda and its regional affiliate, Al-Shabaab. In January of 2020, Al-Shabab militants attacked a Joint US-Kenyan military installation, CSL Manda Bay, on the Northern, killing three Americans.
Al-Shabaab, a regional cell of Al-Qaeda established 1993 is the primary terror group operating in Kenya and Somalia. The group has varying ideologies, but most members are unified by a commitment to Sharia Law and opposition to the Western-backed Federal Government of Somalia. The group has been responsible for many terrorist attacks in Kenya and Somalia, targeting embassies, shopping malls and hotels. They are composed of an estimated 8,000 active members.
Policy
United States activities confronting terrorist threats in Kenya and Somalia can be grouped into two categories, counterterrorism (CT) and countering violent extremism (CVE). Counterterrorism encompasses a variety of actionable policy, including border security, military operations, law enforcement and legislation. US agencies and military bodies will cooperate with host nations in solving issues in these categories through equipping local armed forces, intelligence support, and advisory support. Countering violent extremism takes a different approach, focusing on prevention through increasing peaceful options for political, economic and social engagement for communities. To accomplish this, programs engage with communities at local levels, focusing on regional governments with specific focuses to prevent the spread of violent extremism.
Involved Agencies and Their Roles
The State Department increased its focus on regional security following the embassy bombings in Dar es Salaam and Nairobi. Soon after, Kenya was added to the Anti-Terrorism Assistance (ATA) program, which acted as a signal of increased US interest. The program didn’t receive funding until a few years later, and involved training Kenya Defense Force personnel through the Special Program for Embassy Augmentation and Response (SPEAR). SPEAR is a program through which the Diplomatic Security Service trains forces from ATA member countries in tactical responses to instances of terrorist violence, protecting the interests of both the member state and US personnel and facilities.
The Department of Defense cooperates with and trains soldiers and personnel from the Kenya Defense Force (KDF), as well as providing intelligence and technical support during counterterrorist operations. Soldiers from Combined Joint Task Force – Horn of Africa (CJTF-HOA) train alongside KDF units, such as SPEAR teams, in situations including crisis response, humanitarian assistance, and evacuation of non-combatant personnel. US military assets are also deployed in tandem with Kenyan military personnel during counterterrorism operations such as Operation Linda Nchi, whose goal was combating the threat Al-Shabaab to the Kenyan homeland. US air assets provided intelligence and survey information, while the KDF shouldered the bulk of the fighting and ground operations.
The United States Agency for International Development (USAID) works to counter violent extremism (CVE) in at-risk countries, including Kenya and Somalia. As early as 2011, USAID began conducting CVE activities in the ethnic Somali majority community of Eastleigh in Nairobi. Subsequently, larger scale work began in cooperation with the Kenyan National Counterterrorism Center to support local capability to counter violent extremism. Leveraging the 2010 Kenyan constitution, USAID and the Kenyan NCTC worked with all 47 Kenyan counties to develop local level CVE action plans. USAID focuses primarily on the civilian cooperation between the United States and Kenya, and has provided substantial support for local authorities to counter violent extremist networks through civilian-made solutions.
Governance and control of Somalia is fractured, with regional governing bodies maintaining control over certain areas of the country. US organizations primarily work with the recognized Federal Government of Somalia (FGS) to support local efforts to combat violent extremism and terrorism. The FGS has implemented a number of its own programs, such as regulations on financial transactions requiring any suspicious movement of funds to be reported to the country’s Financial Reporting Center. The US military also has presence in the country with its stated mission being one of advise-and-assist, enabling local forces to orchestrate more effective campaigns against terrorism. This includes training, advising and equipping the forces of the FGS.
Conclusions
The United States has major security interests in Kenya and Somalia, stemming from its fight against Al-Qaeda. Policy in the region has been and is varied, using both CT and CVE methods to work towards broad and specific objectives. Cooperation with local authorities is a cornerstone of both types of policy, and will continue to be in the future. Currently active programs from USAID, DOD, and the State Department all cooperate with military and civilian sectors of the Kenyan and Somali governments.
